Various views of Management

MANAGEMENT as ARTS or SCIENCE or MIXTURE of BOTH

MANAGEMENT as ARTS

Art is the application of practical knowledge and skill to achieve a concrete result.It is practice oriented. In practice,it involves certain skills,particularly human relation skills which cannot be reduced to a common formula.Management is an art because it requires innovation,intuition and judgement.

G.R.Terry states that art is " bringing about of a desired result through the application of skill."
Harold Koontz states, "Art is the application of knowledge to reality with a view to accomplishing some concrete results ordinarily with compromise,blend and design to get the best result."

MANAGEMENT as SCIENCE

Science means systematised body of knowledge acquired through experimentation and observation.It is a systematised body of knowledge relating to a specific field which is acquired by mankind through experimentation and observation, the validity of which can be tested and verified.The basis of Science is to search for information by means of determining the cause and effect relationship through experimentation and observation.
Prof. Keynes states, "Science is systematised body of knowledge which established relationship between cause and effect."
Koontz and O'Donnell state, "The essential feature of science is that knowledge has been systematised through the application of scientific method."

MANAGEMENT as MIXTURE of BOTH, SCIENCE and ART

Science means systematised body of knowledge relating to a specific field which is acquired by mankind to search for information by means of determining the cause and effect relationship of two or more variables through experimentation and observation, the validity of which can be tested and verified. Art is the application of practical knowledge and skill particularly human relation skills to achieve a concrete result because it requires innovation,intuition and judgement. Management can be regarded as both Science and Arts because it combines the features of both of them. In fact, science and art are not mutually exclusive but complimentary to each other.Science without art is a waste and art without science, is misleading. Science is 'to know' Art is 'to do' hence should go hand in hand.

Management is not a pure science but a social or applied science as Principles of flexibility or the Principles of exceptions are seen there where as pure science is rigid.

Business Letters

Writing an effective business letter is an important skill for every manager and business owner. In this brief overview we will examine the five main steps in creating an effective business letter. With this knowledge you can quickly amend and personalize business letters.

Main Steps:

• Identify your aims

• Establish the facts

• Know the recipient of the letter

• Create sample Copy

• Decide on Physical layout of letter.

Identify your Aims:

Clearly establish what you want to achieve from the letter- whether it is to win back a dissatisfied customer or to reprimand an employee. Whatever the aim, create your letter from these goals.

Establish the facts:

Make sure you have the relevant accurate facts available. For a late payer, this might include relevant invoices, complaint forms, talks with your sales department and any previous correspondence from the customer.

Know the recipient of the letter:

Write in the language of your recipient. Try to put yourself in the position of the recipient. Read it from his point of view. Is the letter clear or open to misinterpretation.

If you know the recipient, use this knowledge to phrase the letter to generate your desired

Create a sample Copy:

Having established your aims, amassed the relevant facts with a conscious view of the recipient- write down the main points of your letter.

Decide on Physical layout of letter.

The physical appearance of a letter consists of the paper and the envelope.

The first thing a recipient sees is the envelope. It is essential that it is of suitable quality with the name and address spelt correctly. Quality envelopes and paper suggest a professional company.

Technical layout of letter:

The following elements will constitute the formal outlay.

• Letterhead

• Name and address

• Date

• Reference

• Subject matter

• Salutation

• Communication

• Signature

• Enclosures

Letterhead:

This will include your company's name, address, telephone number, fax number and email address. Include your web address if available. Other information may be required depending on the legal status of your business formation. Contact your legal adviser for exact details.

Name and address:

Always include the recipient's name, address and postal code. Add job title if appropriate. Double check that you have the correct spelling of the recipient 's name .

Reference:

These are optional. They are a good idea if you have a large volume of correspondence. These days modern word processors made this an easy task to complete and maintain.

Date:

Always date your letters. Never abbreviate January to Jan. 31.This should be parallel to the Reference column.

Subject matter:

Again this is optional, but its inclusion can help the recipient in dealing successfully with the aims of your letter. Normally the subject sentence is preceded with the word Re: It should be placed one line below the greeting.

Salutations:

The type of salutation depends on your relationship with the recipient. Always try to personalize the letter thus avoiding the dear sir/madam situation.

Communication:

This will contain a number of paragraphs, each paragraph dealing with one point and one point only.

Signature:

The signature should be clear and legible-showing you are interested in the letter and consequently the recipient. Your signature should also be followed underneath by a typed version of your name and your job title.

Enclosures:

If you include other material in the letter, put 'Enclosure', 'Enc', or ' Encs ', as appropriate, two lines below the last entry.

A letter's style:

Previously we created the main points of our letter, now we must transform this into a final version. To do this, four main considerations are necessary.

• Format

• Prose

• Manner

• Accuracy

Format:

There are three main formats: blocked, semi-blocked and indented.

The former has all entries tight against the left -hand margin. The semi-blocked format sets the references and the date to the right margin for filing and retrieval purposes, with the remaining entries placed against the left margin.

The indented format follows the same layout as either of the above, but indents each paragraph by five or six spaces.

Prose:

Clarity of communication is the primary goal. Don't use technical jargon if the recipient is unlikely to understand it. Short sentences are less likely to be misunderstood or misinterpreted. Be precise, don't ramble. Check each sentence to see if it is relevant. Does it add to the point ?

Manner:

Always try to personalize your letters. Always try to be civil and friendly even if the subject matter is stern and sensitive. Give the impression to the recipient that some effort and thought has gone into the letter.

Accuracy:

Once the final version of the letter has been created, polish it off with a final spelling and punctuation check.

How to Write the body of Commercial Letters

Start (Type 1)

Dear Personnel Director,

Dear Sir or Madam, (Use if you don't know who you are writing to)

Dear Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms (Use if you know who you are writing to, and have a formal relationship with – VERY IMPORTANT use Ms for women unless asked to use Mrs or Miss)

Dear Frank, (Use if the person is a close business contact or friend)

To Whom It May Concern (Very formal as you do not know the person to whom you are writing

The Reference (1 followed by any of the 2's as applicable)

1. With reference to… / Regarding to…

2. your advertisement in the Times, …your letter of 23rd March, …your phone call today, … Thank you for your letter of March 5th.

The Reason for Writing(1 followed by any of the 2's as applicable)

1. I am writing to…

2. enquire about …/ apologize for …/ confirm …

Requesting

Could you possibly… ?

I would be grateful if you could …

I would also like to know…

Could you tell me whether… ?

Agreeing to Requests

I would be delighted to …

Giving Bad News

Unfortunately …

I am afraid that …

Enclosing Documents

I am enclosing …

Please find enclosed …

Enclosed you will find …

Closing Remarks

Thank you for your help

Please contact us again if we can help in any way.

there are any problems.

you have any questions.

Reference to Future Contact

I look forward to hearing from you soon.

meeting (seeing) you next Tuesday.

The Finish

Yours faithfully, (Very formal as you do not know the person to whom you are writing)

Yours sincerely, (If you know the name of the person you're writing to)

Best wishes,

Best regards, (If the person is a close business contact or friend)

Start (Type 2)

Dear Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms (Use if you know who you are writing to, and have a formal relationship with – VERY IMPORTANT use Ms for women unless asked to use Mrs or Miss)

The Reference (1 followed by any of the 2's as applicable)

1. With reference to…/Regarding to…

2. your advertisement in the Times, …/your letter of 23rd March, …/your phone call today,

Thank you for your letter of March 5th.

Thanking the Potential Customer for His/Her Interest

Thank you for your letter of ... enquiring (asking for information) about ...

We would like to thank you for your letter of ... enquiring (asking for information) about ...

Providing Requested Materials

We are pleased to enclose ...

Enclosed you will find ...

We enclose ...

Agreeing to Requests

I would be delighted to …

Providing Additional Information

We would also like to inform you ...

Regarding your question about ...

In answer to your question (enquiry) about ...

Giving Bad News

Unfortunately …

I am afraid that …

Enclosing Documents I am enclosing …

Please find enclosed …

Enclosed you will find …

Closing Remarks

Thank you for your help

Please contact us again if we can help in any way.

there are any problems.

you have any questions.

Reference to Future Contact

I look forward to hearing from you soon.

meeting (seeing) you next Tuesday.

receiving your order

welcoming you as our client (customer)

The Finish

Yours faithfully, (Very formal as you do not know the person to whom you are writing)

Yours sincerely, (If you know the name of the person you're writing to)

Best wishes,

Best regards, (If the person is a close business contact or friend)

Tips:

1. Use block style - do not indent paragraphs.

2. Keep the letter brief and to the point.

3. Do not use shortened verb forms - write them out (i.e. "don't instead of do not").

4. Always keep a copy of correspondence for future reference.

The Red Hot Stove Rule

However well you handle discipline it remains an unpleasant task that often causes resentment. The challenge to the supervisor is to apply the necessary disciplinary action so that it minimizes damage to individuals and to the manager himself.

Without the continual support of the subordinates, no manager can get things done. But, disciplinary action against a delinquent employee is painful and generates resentment on his part. Hence, a question arises as to how to impose discipline without generating resentment? This is possible through what Douglas McGregor called the “Red Hot Stove Rule”, which draws an analogy between touching a hot stove and undergoing discipline.

A really effective way to incorporate all the rules that are described above is to adopt the hot stove rule. When you touch a hot stove, the reaction is immediate, with warning, consistent, and impersonal.

According to the Red Hot Stove rule, disciplinary action should have the following consequences:

(a) Burns immediately: If disciplinary action is to be taken, it must occur immediately so the individual will understand the reason for it. With the passage of time, people have the tendency to convince themselves that they are not at fault.

(b) Provides warning: It is very important to provide advance warning that punishment will follow unacceptable behavior. As you move closer to hot stove, you are warned by its heat that you will be burned if you touch it.

(c) Gives consistent punishment: Disciplinary action should also be consistent in that everyone who performs the same act will be punished accordingly. As with a hot stove, each person who touches it is burned the same.

(d) Burns impersonally: Disciplinary action should be impersonal. There are no favorites when this approach is followed.

The result is consistent; whoever touches a hot stove will always get burned

The result is impersonal because whoever touches a hot stove is burned. The burn was caused by the act of touching the stove, not because of who the person is. Discipline should be directed against the act and not against the person.

The comparison between the "hot stove rule" and disciplinary action is obvious.

Universal Principles of Management by Henri Fayol

Fayol's career began as a mining engineer. He then moved into research geology and in 1888 joined, Comambault as Director. Comambault was in difficulty but Fayol turned the operation round. On retirement he published his work - a comprehensive theory of administration - described and classified administrative management roles and processes then became recognised and referenced by others in the growing discourse about management. He is frequently seen as a key, early contributor to a classical or administrative management school of thought.

His theorising about administration was built on personal observation and experience of what worked well in terms of organisation. His aspiration for an "administrative science" sought a consistent set of principles that all organizations must apply in order to run properly.

F. W. Taylor published "The Principles of Scientific Management" in the USA in 1911, and Fayol in 1916 examined the nature of management and administration on the basis of his French mining organisation experiences..

Both Fayol and Taylor were arguing that principles existed which all organisations - in order to operate and be administered efficiently - could implement. This type of assertion typifies a "one best way" approach to management thinking. Fayol's five functions are still relevant to discussion today about management roles and action.

1. To Forecast And Plan - Prevoyance

examine the future and draw up plans of action

2. To Organise

build up the structure, material and human of the undertaking

3. To Command

maintain activity among the personnel

4. To Co-Ordinate

bind together, unify and harmonise activity and effort

5. To Control

see that everything occurs in conformity with policy and practise

Fayol also synthesised 14 principles for organisational design and effective administration. It is worthwhile reflecting on these are comparing the conclusions to contemporary utterances by Peters, Kanter and Handy to name but three management gurus. Fayol's 14 principles are:

 Specialisation/Division Of Labour

This principle is the same as Adam Smith's 'division of labour'. Specialisation increases output by making employees more efficient.A principle of work allocation and specialisation in order to concentrate activities to enable specialisation of skills and understandings, more work focus and efficiency.

 Authority With Corresponding Responsibility

Managers must be able to give orders. Authority gives them this right. Note that responsibility arises wherever authority is exercised.

If responsibilities are allocated then the post holder needs the requisite authority to carry these out including the right to require others in the area of responsibility to undertake duties.

A manager should never be given authority without responsibility--and also should never be given responsibility without the associated authority to get the work done.

 Discipline

The generalisation about discipline is that discipline is essential for the smooth running of a business and without it - standards, consistency of action, adherence to rules and values - no enterprise could prosper.Employees must obey and respect the rules that govern the organisation. Good discipline is the result of effective leadership, a clear understanding between management and workers regarding the organisation's rules, and the judicious use of penalties for infractions of the rules.

 Unity Of Command

The idea is that an employee should receive instructions from one superior only. This generalisation still holds - even where we are involved with team and matrix structures which involve reporting to more than one boss - or being accountable to several clients. The basic concern is that tensions and dilemmas arise where we report to two or more bosses. One boss may want X, the other Y and the subordinate is caught between the devil and the deep blue sea.

 Unity Of Direction

Each group of organisational activities that have the same objective should be directed by one manager using one plan.The unity of command idea of having one head (chief executive) with agreed purposes and objectives and one plan for a group of activities is clear.

 Subordination Of Individual Interest To The General Interest

Fayol's line was that one employee's interests or those of one group should not prevail over the organisation as a whole. This would spark a lively debate about who decides that the interests of the organisation as a whole are. The interests of any one employee or group of employees should not take precedence over the interests of the organisation.

 Remuneration Of Staff
" The Price Of Services Rendered".

The general principle is that levels of compensation should be "fair" and as far as possible afford satisfaction both to the staff and the firm (in terms of its cost structures and desire for profitability/surplus).

 Centralisation

Centralisation refers to the degree to which subordinates are involved in decision making. Whether decision making is centralised (to management) or decentralised (to subordinates) is a question of proper proportion. The task is to find the optimum degree of centralisation for each situation.

 Scalar Chain/Line Of Authority

The scalar chain of command of reporting relationships from top executive to the ordinary shop operative or driver needs to be sensible, clear and understood.The line of authority from top management to the lowest ranks represents the scalar chain. Communications should follow this chain. However, if following the chain creates delays, cross-communications can be allowed if agreed to by all parties and superiors are kept informed.

 Order

People and materials should be in the right place at the right time.The level of generalisation becomes difficult with this principle. Basically an organisation "should" provide an orderly place for each individual member - who needs to see how their role fits into the organisation and be confident, able to predict the organisations behaviour towards them. Thus policies, rules, instructions and actions should be understandable and understood. Orderliness implies steady evolutionary movement rather than wild, anxiety provoking, unpredictable movement.

 Equity

Equity, fairness and a sense of justice "should"pervade the organisation - in principle and practice.Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates.

 Stability Of Tenure

High employee turnover is inefficient. Management should provide orderly personnel planning and ensure that replacements are available to fill vacancies.Time is needed for the employee to adapt to his/her work and perform it effectively. Stability of tenure promotes loyalty to the organisation, its purposes and values.

 Initiative

Employees who are allowed to originate and carry out plans will exert high levels of effort.At all levels of the organisational structure, zeal, enthusiasm and energy are enabled by people having the scope for personal initiative.

 Esprit De Corps

Here Fayol emphasises the need for building and maintaining of harmony among the work force , team work and sound interpersonal relationships.Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity within the organisation.